OnWritingWell

A man may take to drink because he feels himself to be a failure, and then fail all the more completely because he drinks. It is rather the same thing that is happening to the English language. It becomes ugly and inaccurate because our thoughts are foolish, but the slovenliness of our language makes it easier for us to have foolish thoughts. --George Orwell, "Politics and the English Language"

This handout is designed to help you, not to burden you. Writing well is an essential skill, useful in a myriad of circumstances and used in almost every occupation that requires a university degree (and many that do not). Nevertheless, the ability to communicate in a clear and coherent manner is, it seems, a dying art. Your professors are paid to read your papers in full. You can be sure that after college no one else will do so unless you make it worthwhile. While writing well is an art form that takes years to perfect, there are many steps you can take that will immediately improve your writing. In general, there are two critical aspects to academic writing: developing good ideas and arguments and communicating these clearly. There is no precise demarcation indicating when, in the course of developing your paper, one process ends and the other begins. However, you may find it helpful, as I do, to emphasize these aspects at different stages in the evolution of your paper.

It makes sense to focus first on the development of your ideas and arguments. Some people find that an outline helps to organize their thoughts in the beginning stages of writing. Other people find it easiest to simply think as they type; however, this second method is not an excuse for producing a paper without proofreading or revising. In fact, the think-as-you-go method will frequently result in more work, as you will have to go through several revisions to streamline your prose.

Make sure that you understand the question on which you are being asked to write. A summary or exegesis is not the same thing as a critical evaluation or argument. You have to understand the writing assignment before you can start thinking about it, which you should start doing immediately. This does not mean that you have to sit down and start writing right away; you can begin thinking while you eat, walk between classes, work out, recreate (my favorite), and continue to go about your daily routine. Develop a general sense of what you want to say. Think of arguments for and against the position you are going to take. Talk to friends or classmates about the issues at stake in your paper. You may find it useful to keep a scratch pad with you so that you can quickly record any questions, insights or felicitous turns of phrase that come to mind at this stage.

Re-read any material that you feel is especially important to the assignment. If you have been keeping up with coursework, this should not mean that you have to re-read the whole semester�s worth of reading. Stay focused and immerse yourself in the topic and the reading appropriate to it.

When developing arguments, one very common error is to construct a straw man�a weak or unfair caricature of an opponent�s argument, often the result of oversimplifying a position�in order to knock it down. No one is impressed when you knock down a straw man. Assume that a person who holds the position you are opposing is intelligent and construct the best possible arguments supporting his or her viewpoint�only then are you prepared to offer coherent and effective counter arguments. In fact, good writers often acknowledge potential replies to their own arguments and then go on to answer these replies. If done effectively, this technique is very convincing because it shows that you considered the issues from a variety of perspectives before drawing your conclusions.

You may have produced some fairly decent first drafts in the past, perhaps even first drafts that earned you an �A.� We all get lucky sometimes. However, in general, writing well will require revision. This means that you have to develop your initial drafts early enough to provide time to revise and polish your effort.

If you find yourself stuck or otherwise afflicted with writer�s block, one good remedy is to simply make more and more detailed outlines. Eventually there will be nothing left to do but fill in the transitions. This technique is especially helpful if you have a tendency toward perfectionism that makes it difficult for you to be satisfied that a given sentence or paragraph says exactly what you mean�a problem common among the best students. By developing progressively more detailed outlines, you can make your thoughts progressively more clear without worrying (yet) about grammar or style. When you do move on to polish your prose, you will find it much easier to say what you mean because you will know what you mean to say.

Once the actual writing has begun, you may find it helpful to write quickly and to simply throw everything out onto the page. This method is something like producing a prose-outline. Once you have the general argument on the page (or in the outline) it is much easier to revise your prose.

Finally, with the wonders of computer technology�you will be thankful that my generation is likely the last, in the United States, to have produced 20+ page papers on a typewriter�you can cut and paste to your heart�s content, reorganizing the order in which you want to say things. I suggest you leave the introduction and conclusion to the end of the writing process, as these paragraphs are often the most difficult to write and may change several times as the paper develops.

Once you have produced a good first draft, it is time to proofread and revise your paper. You now know what you want to say and it is time to insure that you are saying it clearly. This stage is marked by careful revision (frequently multiple revisions) of your paper.

By far the most common flaw in undergraduate papers is the failure to revise a promising first draft. A paper is not done when you reach the required page limit; it can always benefit from revision. Revision is always more effective when you return to a draft that you have put aside for a few days�another reason to start the writing process early. In real life, many people may not have the time to do this, which is all the more reason to re-read and revise your own work very critically before turning it in. Generally speaking, the more revisions your paper goes through, the better it will be. As Nathaniel Hawthorne noted, "Easy reading is damn hard writing."

When developing your writing style, there are many criteria to consider. It is true that some rules of grammar and usage are really just conventions. It is also true that many great writers regularly break these rules. However, with respect to academic writing, I believe many of my Japanese sensei are correct: you must learn to imitate (i.e., to follow the rules) before you can innovate (i.e., break the rules).

The following list is by no means exhaustive. Nevertheless, these issues are ones that frequently come up in undergraduate papers and attention to them will go a long way toward helping you improve your writing.

Although there are a variety of legitimate ways in which you can organize a paper, constructing an introduction (what you are going to say), a body (making your argument), and a conclusion (summarizing what you have said) is one common way to structure a paper. Sentences are combined to make an organized paragraph. Paragraphs are combined in a manner that makes a specific point or forms a section of your paper. The various sections or arguments of your paper are combined in order to make your point or support your thesis.

You should have a clear idea of what you want to say at this stage. Test this by trying to express your thesis in a sentence or two. Have you followed your outline? Does your argument proceed in a reasonable fashion, or are there digressions that add nothing to (or even detract from) your point? Do you repeat yourself unnecessarily? Have you illustrated key points in a way that makes sense? Are your best arguments presented where they are most rhetorically effective (at the beginning or end)? Does your conclusion draw together the various points you make in a clear and convincing manner?

In general, group similar issues together into larger segments rather then alternating back and forth between distantly related issues. Consider how many major sections your paper will have. When in doubt, err towards simpler organizational structures, as they are easier for readers to follow. Thus, it is usually best to interpret or summarize before moving on to evaluate or critique. Rather than repeating, �here is one point and here is my critique� and �here is another point and here is my critique,� try interpreting the author�s position and then evaluating it.

Make sure that transitions between sections of your paper are very, very clear. You know where your argument is going, but your reader does not. What seems obvious to you may be obscure to your reader. Just as you take pains to speak clearly when making an oral argument, you must emphasize your paper�s structure in a manner that seems exaggerated in order to insure it is clear to your readers. Although these transitions may not be present in your outline, be sure to insert them in your final draft.

Within each section, each individual paragraph should, in general, be connected to the one preceding it and to the one following it by some transition or connective. This may take the form of a transitional word or phrase (however, moreover, nevertheless, on the other hand, by contrast, etc.) or by the repetition of a word, phrase, or idea from the preceding paragraph. For the reader, such transitions serve to keep the overall structure of your paper in view. In addition, they give the impression that your argument is unified by an inner necessity, and therefore reinforce your reader�s sense that you are right.

Note that paragraphs are a way of dividing your writing into an easy to follow form. In general, each paragraph conveys an idea or related group of ideas. Thus, you should be suspicious of any one-sentence paragraphs or any paragraphs as long as a page. While such divisions are sometimes appropriate, they are exceptions to the rule.

Remember the basics of sentence structure. For example, make sure your sentences have a subject and a verb. If you did not receive any instruction in the grammar and usage of English in high school, I strongly suggest that you purchase The Elements of Style, by William Strunk, Jr. and E. B. White. This little book is by no means exhaustive, but it is a good place to start. In addition, you should look out for the following common errors:

Write vigorous, clear, specific prose. Keep your prose tight by ruthlessly eliminating every extra word so that every one that remains, counts.

In general, avoid passive constructions (sentences where the subject "receives" the action rather than �doing� the action). Thus, �the cake was eaten by Aristotle� should be avoided in favor of, �Aristotle ate the cake.� There are some cases in which the passive construction may be appropriate. However, you should avoid using this construction until you are familiar with the rules (remember, imitation before innovation).

Simple sentences are clear. It is better to keep your sentences clear than to commit serious grammatical errors in the pursuit of complexity or profundity. Prose can simultaneously be clear, correct, and artful; but I suggest that you pursue these three goals in that order.

Read your sentences out loud. This practice will invariably reveal awkward and unclear sentences in your paper. Because you speak much more frequently and with a greater facility than you write, you are better at identifying proper English when spoken. Even when you do not know why a sentence is awkward or incorrect, your ear will hear it.

Choose the word that means exactly what you want to say. Think of what a given word says and what it does not say. �Happiness is something that all persons must suffer. We all endure joys in our life.� Is happiness something we suffer? Do we endure joy? Certainly these sentences are meaningful, and in certain circumstances they might even be appropriate for communicating your meaning, but chances are they do not really capture what you are trying to say.

Do not misspell names of philosophers, titles of books, or key terms. Basic errors like these indicate a serious lack of attention to your work and undermine your credibility.

Be careful when you use thesauruses, as they sometimes suggest that words that are only roughly similar are in fact synonyms. Use a dictionary to look up any word you find in a thesaurus unless you are sure of its exact meaning. I am certain that the source of many misused words in undergraduate papers is the thoughtless use of a thesaurus included with a word processing program.

Many style manuals provide lists of frequently misused words. It is worth the effort to familiarize yourself with these common errors. Some examples of these basic errors include: their/there/they�re, effect/affect, accept/except, its/it�s, then/than, to/two/too, data/datum, media/medium and that/which.

When possible (i.e., when it does not make the sentence hopelessly awkward), use inclusive language.

Have you properly cited all direct quotations? Have you attributed ideas that you have borrowed to their authors? All your citations should follow the same scholarly convention. The Modern Language Association and the Chicago Manual of Style are the two most commonly used models for academic citation, and the latter is generally preferred in philosophy.

Your spell-checker may catch some obvious misspellings, but it is not a substitute for a thorough proofreading. Computer software cannot catch properly spelled words that are used incorrectly. Moreover, computer �grammar-checkers� will sometimes indicate that something is incorrect when in fact it is perfectly legitimate. Thus, you must proofread your work to locate and eliminate typographic errors and improperly used words. Although such errors may seem minor, they are extremely distracting and impede comprehension.

[1] This is a work in progress and I am well aware that this document violates some of the very rules it advocates. When time permits, I will hopefully fashion this document into a beautiful essay that will bring tears to your eyes with its clear organization, comprehensive treatment of the subject and precise, yet artful, language. Until that time, I thought it best to make available this preliminary document for the benefit of my students. Take it for what it is worth and do with it what you will. Finally, I wish to acknowledge the work of Dr. Scott Cameron, who�s own �On Writing Well� was the inspiration for and template of this document. Much of what is worthwhile in this document is either taken directly or paraphrased (with permission) from Dr. Cameron's handout. Of course, all errors and omissions are my own.